Easements Land Law Essay

In the past, English law has been underpinned by a strong and generally unifying desire to protect the rights of persons who could demonstrate a long established de facto enjoyment of land. Indeed, the Prescription Act 1832 legislatively entrenched prescription, and in particular, prescriptive easements. The underlying assumption was that the principle of prescription was necessary to reconcile the conflicting interests of landowners The basis of prescription is that if long enjoyment of a lawful right is shown, the courts will uphold the right by presuming it had a lawful origin. There are three types of prescription, namely, prescription at common law, prescription under the doctrine of lost modern grant and prescription under the Prescription act 1832. The following document will discuss the current short comings of the law of acquisition of easements by prescription and provide detailed study of recommended reforms. The first area to discuss is the acquisition of easements by prescription at common law. To acquire an easement under common law, the claimant has to show that the easement has been enjoyed not just for a long period of time but since time immemorial, that is, since 1189. One of the first identified issues with acquisition under common law was the idea of time immemorial, the issue arose in Bryant v Foot , where a rector tried to establish a claim to a fee for marriages performed in his parish church. Early use was proved but it was held that the fee of 13 shillings could not have been so high in 1189 and therefore the right could not have existed since time immemorial. The presumption of time immemorial can be rebutted by the owner of the allegedly servient land demonstrating that this was not infact the case. This was demonstrated in the case of Duke of Norfolk v Arbuthnot where a claim to prescription failed upon proof that the church in question had been built around 1380 and therefore, even though the right had existed for centuries, it had not existed since 1189. The courts later decided to use the idea of living memory, which later became 20 years. However it has been generally assumed that the ancient common law principle nowadays adds nothing to the other grounds of prescriptive claims as it is virtually impossible to make a successful claim to a prescriptive right at common law. The common law principle of prescriptive acquisition has no place in the modern times. The doctrine of lost modern grant was â€Å"developed because of unsatisfactory nature of common law prescription†. As it was difficult to that a right has been exercised since 1189, the law allowed a much easier test to be applied. Claims are based on a legal fiction which suggests that a grant had been made at one time but the grant had been lost. In Tehidy Minerals Ltd v Norman , it was said that the legal fiction would be adopted â€Å"where there has been upwards of 20 years† uninterrupted enjoyment of an easement, such enjoyment having the necessary qualities to fulfil the requirements of prescription. Evidence to raise the presumption must be stronger than that required for prescription at common law, and the fiction can only be relied upon if the claim fails at common law. The current problems with the law of lost modern grant are that the presumption of a grant having existed is strong as such that it cannot be rebutted by proof positive that no grant was made. It was hard to persuade Juries to make the presumption under lost modern grant that a grant had existed, even though there was sufficient evidence to prove that it could not have. The act was passed to remedy the situation, As Thesiger J explained in Sturges v Bridgman, â€Å"The act fixes periods for the acquisition of easments, but it does not alter the character of easements or of the user or enjoyment by which they are acquired†. The main intention behind its drafting was to shorten the time of prescription in certain cases. It has been castigated as â€Å"one of the worst drafted acts on the Statute book†. The act is intended to supplement, rather than displace, the other grounds of prescription. It also has been criticised for being overly complex. Various shortcomings of the act have been outlined in cases and by critics. One of the outlined flaws is that the period of 20 years to find a prescriptive right under the act has to be the 20 years next before action b rought. Therefore the period must be calculated back from â€Å"some suit or action wherein the claim or matter to which such right may relate shall have been or shall be brought into question† . This means that even though the right may have been enjoyed for the past 80 years, the claim will fail unless the last 20 years immediately before the action have been â€Å"without interruption†. The claim will also fail if both tenements had been owned or occupied by the same person anytime immediately before the action. The minimum period of 20 years has to be â€Å"next before action† and without interruption. If the interruption originated 19 years and one day prior to the action, the year’s interruption would not be completed until one day after 20 years. If the dominant owner did not make his claim before the last day of the year he would be too late. As on the next day the fatal period on one year’s interruption would be complete, thus he only has one day only in which to make his claim. The use of vague vocabulary such as the term â€Å"interruption† has amounted to masses of criticisms. Interruption has a special meaning for the purposes of prescription act, it says that even when there is some hostile obstruction, it will not amount to an interruption unless and until the claimant has acquiesced in the obstruction for one year after becoming aware of it and knowing who was responsible for it. Reforms One of the suggested reforms by the Law commission was to â€Å"abolish prescriptive acquisition with prospective effect†. The arguments presented in favour of abolishing prescriptive acquisition do hold some influence. It has been long contended that there is no longer nay moral justification for the prescription of easements. Is it fair to take unfair advantage of a â€Å"good neighbourly† attitude? Prescriptive acquisition allows the dominant owner to get something in exchange for nothing, the owner of the servient land is in no way compensated. For some Law reform parties abolishment of Law of Prescription may be the easiest and safest method of restoring certainty to the law, however to point to the complexity of the law does not address the fundamental issue as to whether prescription in some form is still necessary in land law. Abolishing prescription will not resolve all problems posed by prescriptive easements. There are other possibilities of reform rather than complete abolishment, one of them being abolition being subject to transitional provisions through the land registration system, a transitional provisions period could be set which would allow people who had acquired a prescriptive easement to register it. There is a clear advantage to this, Landowners are placed on notice that they are required to take steps to secure their rights or loose them altogether. In this way, after a specified time limit there is the chance of completely abolishing the acquisition of easements by prescription. It is also likely that the abolition of prescriptive easements would create a legal vacuum in respect to prospective acquisition by prescription. As pointed out earlier, the law of prescription was important for long established de facto users when there was no other way of acquiring an easement, particularly when the servient owner was unwilling to negotiate a bargain for easement rights. Yet the alleged easement served and continued to serve a practical or economic purpose for the dominant owner. Indeed, it was unlikely that a dominant owner would claim an easement by prescription for theoretical or historical reasons only. The claim based on retrospective long user was inextricably intertwined with present value. As English Land Law is going through its transition from the period of possession to registration it is unlikely that the law of prescription will be kept in its current form. In 1998, the Law Commission and H M L Registry considered that far reaching action was necessary. The question will be whether to modify prescription or abolish it altogether, it will depend upon whether long established de facto enjoyment can be accommodated within a system where the frame of reference is registration and the major goal is the protection of bona fide purchasers. Attempts have been made to encounter these issues in the Land Registration Act 2002 and The Commons Act 2006.

Policy Issue and the Three Branches of Government Essay

In a news article written by Deborah Hastings entitled â€Å"Carded at polls: No photo ID, no vote,† it was shown how the three branches of the government works, which are the executive, legislative, and judiciary, on aspects of law for the country.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The issue elaborated on the news article was about the voter’s ID card. It pressed problems for people living in certain states, one of which is Indiana, who prohibits people wit no voter’s ID card to vote (Hastings, 2007). The requirements for the document to be presented are a) voter’s photograph; b) the voter’s name which should be similar to the name indicated on the voter’s registration record; and c) a current expiration date (Hastings, 2007). However, a considerable number of people in Indiana do not have these requirements and are, thus, ineligible to vote (Hastings, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the news, it has been shown that it is the legislative branch of the government who takes the task of formulating the laws. The legislative branch is responsible for creating and proposing laws with the aim of making a better society for all. The second branch, the executive, has the responsibility of implementing the laws and policies. It has the veto power which gives the executive branch the chance to make advice and changes on the law proposed by the congress. In addition to this, the executive branch has quasi-legislative power, such that, as needed and with certain conditions, it can formulate policies without having to go through the normal process of the legislative branch. Included here are administrative and executive orders. The third branch, the judicial branch, serves as a check and balance for the legislative and the executive branch. The judiciary ensures that the acts of the other two branches are within the framework of the Constitution.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is hard to conclude that they have equal roles, nor is it fair to say that they do not posses equal roles. This is for the reason that their responsibilities are practically different from one another. One can not simply conclude that three persons do equal tasks when the natre of their tasks and duties are different. However, it can be said that they are equal in terms of the level and that no branch of the government is a subordinate of the other. This is clearly stated in the Constitution (Baker, 2007). It is very important to note, after having discussed the roles of the three branches of the government, that they contribute to the functioning of the society and the country. References Baker, J. H. (2007). â€Å"United States Government.†   In Microsoft ® Student 2008 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation. Hastings, D. (2008). Carded at polls: No photo ID, no vote. Retrieved January 23, 2008, from http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080123/ap_on_el_ge/voter_id;_ylt=AkLkJaWl5i_WdCIhdDjIpxhvzwcF.

Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems - Essay Example The level of salinity is different across several marine bodies. Aquatic ecosystem such as the oceans, is a huge reserve for atmospheric CO or carbon monoxide (Aquatic ecosystems: carbon cycle and as atmospheric CO sink). As the aquatic ecosystems are huge reservoirs of flora and fauna, these are often overexploited by the people to satisfy their needs. Industrial fishing that gained preference over the past half-century had alarmingly depleted the highest levels of the aquatic food chain which are the little fishes and organisms (Pauly, et. al.). These small fishes and marine organisms are the preys or food products for the organisms belonging to the higher levels in the aquatic food chain. But multi cultural people and their food habits seems to have taken a toll on this aspect. With the growing love for sea foods in modern times, over fishing of these small creates can harm the larger marine creatures significantly. Terrestrial ecosystem is the one which is found in the land mass and consists of the tundra, the taiga, the temperate deciduous forest, and the grassland (Sheaffer & Moncada, 230).These are the source to different plant and animals. Just like the aquatic form, the terrestrial ecosystem has been over overexploited by man. The trees of the tropical grass lands are cut at a very rapid rate for many activities. The future consequences of thee activities will be that it would harm the global balance and also wipe out many exotic species. One of the exploitation activities seen in the lands is the cutting down of trees for making paper. The cost incurred is high and the revenue generated is also very profitable, similarly, over fishing in the water bodies is a form of exploitation which reduces the number of marine animals. Here too the benefit is in the form of increased revenue for the people. Altering the ecosystems Human activities like cultivation whether on the land or water can change the primary form of the ecosystems. terrestrial ecosystem con sists of agricultural land, rain forests etc. cultivation is carried out in these areas because of the easy availability of soil , manures etc. this can harm the natural balance of the ecosystems as with the increase in cultivation, the land will be modified which would also alter the landscape of the nearby areas. The animals living in those areas would be forced to migrate to other areas which would disrupt the food chain in the long run (Environmental Biology – Ecosystems). Similar disruption can be seen in the aquatic bodies too. Overfishing can lead to the depletion of the smaller, marine creatures which would force the larger creatures like the sharks and whales to survive on other forms of nutrients which might not be suitable for the organisms. Prioritization of the conservation efforts in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems On the basis of the principles mentioned in paper 1, the terrestrial organisms Pronghorns, desert cottontails and Single-leaf Pinyon can be priori tized over the others as these are exotic creatures that survive on dry arid conditions. For the aquatic creatures, Chasmistes cujus I need to be conserved as the number of their family genus is depleting. This is followed by Cui-uis, Curly-leaf pondweed or Potamogeton crispus and The Lahontan cutthroat trout or Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi as it is an endangered species. Both the ecosystems need to be conser

MArketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

MArketing - Essay Example However, it has been recommended to focus on the development of broader range of healthy and organic products due to the shift of the consumers’ preferences towards healthier eating habits is a great niche for the company. Starbucks might broaden its existing range of food items by offering innovative and tasty but healthy food items. Also, Starbucks could strengthen significantly its market position by selecting a good â€Å"victim† for M&A. In case of successful acquisition, Starbucks could develop and launch relevant campaign devoted to its healthy product line. Also, as the company is operating through franchising system in the UK’s market it might be helpful to promote its franchising opportunities through launching a broad marketing campaign and participation in various franchising events and exhibitions. By developing its network through franchising, Starbucks will be able to capture a larger market share within a short period of time and thus will be more competitive on the market. Starbucks Corporation is the US-based premier roaster, marketer and retailer of specialty coffee, operating globally (MarketLine Advantage 2014). The company began its story in 1971 in Seattle (Starbucks.com, 2014). Nowadays, its presence is covered by the 19, 767 retail stores operating in 62 countries all over the world (MarketLine Advantage 2014). In addition to purchasing, roasting and selling whole bean coffees, handcrafted coffee, tea and other variety of beverages, the company offers different fresh food items in its stores (MarketLine Advantage 2014). Starbucks also sells its products and licenses trademarks through grocery and national foodservice accounts and licensed stores (MarketLine Advantage 2014). The Food and Beverage sector in the UK’s economy has a broad definition as it is comprised of different sub-sectors (Thornton 2010). The major sub-sectors include: dairy products, soft beverages, frozen and chilled foods,

The Roman Catholic Church Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Roman Catholic Church - Essay Example Roman Catholics are seen as Christians in their communion to the Pope. Over the world, there are over a billion members following the Catholic Church. In the following essay, we will describe in Part I the organization of the Roman Catholic Church through, then in part II we will discuss about the role of this religion in one's life with the role of the Pope, the Saints and the Bible. Finally, in Part III, we will compare the Roman Catholic Church with Islam. Roman Catholicism - as other Christian denominations, Judaism and Islam - is a monotheistic religion. The Catholic Church believes that God is one, eternal, all-powerful, all-knowing and omnipresent. However, the Roman Catholic Church is also a Trinitarian religion, meaning that even though God is only one in nature, essence and being, He exists in three divine persons: the Son, the Father and the Holy Spirit. They are all identical in essence but differ in their relationship to one another which constitutes the Holy Trinity. Faith in God is the keystone, the most fundamental Catholic belief but also faith in the relationship of these three divine entities as being one. Roman Catholics believe that the Son, the second divine person, has been incarnated as Jesus Christ. Born of the Virgin Mary, he is considered by Catholics to be truly divine and as the same time truly human, teaching how to live through his words and his acts and revealing God as love. Even though Roman Catholicism is composed of numerous places of worship such as cathedrals, churches, chapels and oratories, there is no particular rule for Christians to worship in these places. They can worship in any place as God is omnipresent. However, within these places are held the Eucharistic liturgy - the Celebration of the Mystery of Christ, especially the Paschal Mystery of his death and resurrection - which is considered as the high point of its activity and the source of its life and strength. Within these places of worship, Catholics are particularly focused on the altar, the tabernacle, the place in which chrism and other holy oils are kept, the seat of the bishop or priest, and the baptismal font. The Christian Roman Church recognizes and administers seven sacraments, considered as gifts from Christ to his Church: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Reconciliation, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders and Matrimony. Not every person will receive every sacrament, but they are considered by the Roman Catholic Church as necessary to salvation, conferring each sacrament's special graces, forgiveness of sins, adoption as children of God, conformation to Christ, and membership of the Church. There are numerous holidays and days of observance through the year for Roman Catholics. However, we will only insist on some major events in this essay. Christmas Eve and Christmas day celebrates the arrival of May and Joseph in Bethlehem and the birth of Jesus Christ. Ash Wednesday is an observance to begin the 40 day season of the Lent, a time of reflection and preparation for Holy Week and Easter, a time of intense devotion, it is observed by fasting, frequent worship and acts of charity. Easter commemorates the resurrection of Jesus Christ after his crucifixion. Good Friday is a remembrance of the crucifixion of Christ. Finally, Sundays are considered as days of observance commemorating the rest of God after creating earth during six

Miracles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Miracles - Essay Example Importantly, the same underscores the nature of the Christian God as One who keeps His covenants. In Genesis, He gives Abraham a son, even if it is clear that Abraham was far from perfect. In Genesis, He protects the patriarchs miraculously in order to protect this covenant and the promise of the Messiah. For instance, God miraculously preserves Abraham from Pharaoh and Isaac from Abimelech. As a Sovereign Being, the God of the Bible has the right to annul contents of His covenants whimsically or justifiably, but He keeps His covenant instead. The miracles also reveal the nature of God as Just as He avenges the Israelites at the hands of Pharaoh, vis-Ã  -vis, the Ten Plagues of Egypt. Just as has been previously mentioned, God uses miracles to reveal not only His nature and Person, but also His name, as can be seen in Exodus 3. Miracles also prove God’s sovereignty over nature as is the case of the splitting of the Red Sea (Elwell, 1997). It is also important to acknowledge the fact that as co-workers with man, God can use man as the instrument through which His miraculous power and providence flows. Moses, Elijah, Elisha, Isaiah and Jeremiah are some of the people through whose hands miraculous works were wrought. In the New Testament, Jesus is the focal point of these miracles: He is the Miracle people had been waiting for (Isaiah 7:14); He is the miracle Worker; and the Person by whom God by His Spirit performs miracles. As such, the creative power is seen in Jesus giving sight to the blind and God’s power over death is seen in Jesus resurrecting Lazarus, Jairus’ daughter and later on Himself. God’s sovereignty over nature is seen in Him walking over water and rebuking the storm. All the revelation and intent that God wanted to communicate in the Old Covenant is fully and more clearly revealed, illustrated and expounded in the Person of Christ. The starting point for anyone

Experiment on the bacterium Escherichia coli Coursework

Experiment on the bacterium Escherichia coli - Coursework Example Escherichia coli (E.coli) are gram negative, non-spore forming strains of bacterium that usually inhabit the intestinal tracts of humans and other warm-blooded animals. They are facultative anaerobes that ferment simple sugars like glucose into lactic, acetic and formic acids (HITM, 2006). Most E coli strains are harmless and even are beneficial in the sense that they assist the host by destroying other harmful strains of bacterium and by synthesising sizeable amounts of vitamins (HITM, 2006). Nevertheless, there are certain strains of E coli that prove harmful to humans and other hosts. These are categorised into four major groups - enteropathogenic E coli, enetroinvasive E coli and enterohemorrhagic E coli (HITM, 2006). These four harmful categories earn the E coli strain significant ill-repute as one of the most significant foodborne pathogens. In recent years great attention is being placed on successfully combating their pathogenic influence on humans. An estimate of this harmfu l influence can be derived from the fact that approximately 73,000 cases of human illnesses, inclusive of 63 deaths per year, in the United States were caused by the bacterium O157:H7 (Mead et al., 1999), a viciously enterohemorrhagic E coli strain. It is notable that this is one of the many harmful strains that are pathologically sensitive to humans. All organisms require a benign environment to exist and propagate themselves. Thus, they seek out such environments where they have sufficient food for sourcing their energy needs for the metabolic and biosynthetic tasks. There are several factors that influence the benign environment in which E coli strains, including and especially the harmful ones, can successfully thrive. Since humans are plagued by these harmful strains it is logical that they continuously seek out ways and means by which they can alter these favourable environmental conditions and disallow these bacteria to survive and propagate. This research study is one such wherein two environmental conditions - temperature and Bacteria can be grown in the laboratory in culture media that are designed to provide all the essential nutrients in solution for bacterial growth. In this investigation the media types Luria Bertani (LB) broths and Nutrient broths will be utilised to investigate thermal conditions under which two strains of E coli - (a common experimental strain) and CU1 - thrive. The two E.coli strains will be grown in

Juvenile Justice- A Program Development and Design for the 21st Essay

Juvenile Justice- A Program Development and Design for the 21st Century - Essay Example To carry out a sound procedure, clear criteria are always applied to derive relevant information especially with regards to specific design techniques. In principle, the outcomes are based on notable conceptual framework. The major objectives are provided while designing a juvenile justice program. This also ensures that proper usage of internationally accepted standards is put to the fore. The practical evaluation also involves gaining the absolute results that include defining the core practical solutions to general criteria including consolidating all the working formulas. The program reflects juvenile justice program which ensures that children’s rights are protected at all times. In practice, this also implies that crime prevention mechanism is put in place to ensure adequacy in various contexts. While good practices are validly required, the concept of evaluation is thought to be fundamentally good and relevant for specific levels of management. The purpose of this progr am is to provide program evaluation process which would be relevant and applicable to juvenile justice. 1.1 Problem definition The programs are developed in order to adequately address specific needs. As such, juvenile justice programs are relevant because they are enshrined in a process aimed at controlling delinquent behavior. However, these involve prevention, reduction or elimination of these vices. Therefore, juvenile justice programs underscore various juvenile justice programs which are developed in order to reduce several levels of delinquency and also to ensure that certain attitudes related to this are controlled in order to reduce related risks. For example, the design of a program in the XXI century: the key aspects of underscoring juvenile justice is to define conflict resolution skills and improve the general perception of children. The problems related to juveniles are numerous and the attention itself reflects law enforcement agencies including the community, the jud ges and elected offices. From the level of the manager, it is important to collect data in order to establish proper mechanism and equally highlight possible trends relevant to the magnitude of the established data collection methods. According to problem identification, program managers are in a position to identify possible trends in areas that reflect possible juvenile justice control. The variety of processes required include law enforcement agencies that cover teenage pregnancy rates as well as children who are living below the poverty line. The instances that would define ways that involve getting relevant answers also involve attaining possible leadership controls and, as such, the procedure envisions improvements in terms of juvenile management. As the problem also involves getting interventions, the program requires completing relevant steps invoked as per the required attributes and as per the upcoming interventions. In particular, a number of juvenile groups require adequ ate knowledge in establishing their rights. This also requires notable attributes that would cover several aspects of serious juvenile offenders. Due to changing values, thinking and approaches, the resultant establishment seeks to fully explore notable developments as enshrined in the constitution. This, hence, ensures that there is no compromise as far as effectiveness is concerned. There is also an aspect of possible

The Underestimation of Violent Sexual Offender Recidivism Essay Example for Free

The Underestimation of Violent Sexual Offender Recidivism Essay The sex offender varies in types of crimes.   Some have committed violent sexual assaults on strangers, have had inappropriate sexual contact with family members, molested children, and others have engaged in a wide range of other inappropriate and criminal sexual behaviors.   A homogenous category of â€Å"sex offenders,† in terms of distinguishing factors linked to recidivism will be hidden and unreliable results will be obtained from studies of recidivism patterns.   Therefore, how can we predict specific violent sex offender reoffense, with an aim to integrate these results logically within existing databases? The common sources of data are from NCVS (National Crime Victim Surveys), survey of State Prison Inmates, and FBI files.    These reports list the overall characteristics of victims and offenders such as background, education, psychological profiles etcand are collected by the Bureau of Justice Statistics.   In addition, the reporting of sexual offenses is very hard on the part of victims due to shame, guilt and trauma, altering the accuracy of the data. This is particular true in the case of children and teenagers victims.   Prediction of reoffense along with an offender’s profile may help prevent the failure of rehabilitation.   Prediction must be based on an acceptable and standard method of determination in order to be included within these existing databases.   In addition, the integration of the recidivism data into these databases must be based on the consideration of certain factors: Understanding general crime recidivism as opposed to sex offense reoffense Historical characteristics as static factors Characteristics, circumstances, and attitudes that can change throughout one’s life or dynamic factors The overall recidivism rate of a certain group of sex offenders Reconciliation of observed data contradictions For a variety of reasons, sexual assault is a vastly underreported crime. The National Crime Victimization Surveys (Bureau of Justice Statistics) conducted in 1994, 1995, and 1998 indicate that only 32 percent (one out of three) of sexual assaults against persons 12 or older are reported to law enforcement.   (Kilpatrick, Edmunds,, 1992) A review of studies showed that the recidivism rate for specific types of offenders varied.   Research suggests that many offenders have histories of assaulting across genders and age groups, rather than against only one specific victim population. (Marshall Barbaree, 1990): Incest offenders ranged between 4 and 10 percent Rapists ranged between 7 and 35 percent Child molesters with female victims ranged between 10 and 29 percent Child molesters with male victims ranged between 13 and 40 percent In their summary of the research on the recidivism of rapists, Quinsey, Lalumiere, Rice, and Harris noted that the significant variation in recidivism across studies of rapists is likely due to differences in the types of offenders involved (institutionalized offenders, mentally disordered offenders, or probationers). (Quinsey, Lalumiere, Rice, Harris, 1995) Studies on sex offender recidivism vary broadly in the quality and rigor of the research design, the sample of sex offenders and behaviors included in the study, the length of follow-up, and the criteria for success or failure.   Finally, since base rate differences have been identified across types of sex offenses, it makes sense to study recidivism of sex offenders by offense type. To overcome these consistency problems, meta-analysis reviews of research studies can be very useful in summarizing the scope of certain types of offenses collated with the offenders themselves and their types of victims. (Hanson Bussiere, 1998) In sum, because meta-analysis findings can be generalized across studies and samples, they offer the most reliable estimation of factors associated with the recidivism of sex offenders. References Hanson, R. K., Bussiere, M. (1998). Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(2), 348-362. Quinsey, V. L., Lalumiere, M. L., Rice, M. E., Harris, G. T. (1995). Predicting sexual offenses (J.C. Campbell, Ed.). Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage. Marshall, W. L., Barbaree, H. E. (1990). Outcomes of comprehensive cognitive-behavioral treatment programs. New York: Plenum. Kilpatrick, D. G., Edmunds, C. N., Seymour, A. (1992). Rape in America: A report to the nation (Victims of Crime and Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center). Washington DC, DC: National Center for Victims of Crime and Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center.

Police Officer Sophmore Project Essay Example for Free

Police Officer Sophmore Project Essay Introduction The name of my job is police officers. Police Officer are assigned to an area to enforce laws, regulate traffic, control crowds, prevent crime , and arrest violators. They fall under the Protective Service cluster. I have chosen this career because I always wanted to know more about it. I expect to learn how many hours they work a day and how many years of college do you need to become a police. What they Do My job will provide public safety by maintaining order by responding to emergencies call, protecting people and property and promoting a good community relations. My duty will be to monitor, note, report, and investigate suspicious person and situation. My responsibilities are to identify, persue, and arrest suspects and perpetrators of criminal act. Education and Common College Majors To become a police officer you at least need a associate degree or go train in a vocational school. Your majors in college will have to be Criminal Justice/Police Science. It focuses on the duties of police officers and public security officers on how they control crime, and on investigation activities. Wages and Outlook Its Average annual wage in California was $78,700 with most people making between $51,550 and $110,550. In 2008 this occupation employed about 72,200 people in California. Its prediction in 2018 that there will be 77,400 employed. Things they Need to Know You will have to knowledge its equipment , policies, procedures, and strategies to promote effective local, state, or national security operations for the protection of the people. Also: Law and Government Psychology Customer and Personal Service Similar Occupation A similar occupation is a sheriff. They patrol specific areas to detect law violators and make arrest. Patrol and guard courthouses, grand jury rooms, or are assigned to an area to provide security, enforce laws, and to maintain order. In Addition I found out that there are going to have 520 openings for people who want to be a Police Officer and 1,870 of replacement so in total their will be 2,390 opening spots. I will tell them that this job is really good and that people who work in this occupation generally prize achievements. Conclusion I learn that there are 72,200 police officers working in California and by the year 2018 their will be 77,400 police officers. Yes I do think this is a good career for me because I will be getting good money and I will like what I’m doing. I will like to know their benefits just in case anything happens.

Analog vs digital communication

Analog vs digital communication Table of Contents Introduction Communication System Definition Analog Communication Digital Communication Advantages of Digital Communication Disadvantages of Digital Communication Comparison of Analog and Digital Communication 1. INTRODUCTION: Analog Communication is a data transmitting technique in a format that utilizes continuous signals to transmit data including voice, image, video, electrons etc. An analog signal is a variable signal continuous in both time and amplitude which is generally carried by use of modulation. Digital communicationsis the physical transfer ofdata over a point-to-point or point-to-multipointtransmission medium. Examples of such media arecopper wires,optical fibers,wirelesscommunication media, andstorage media. 2. COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Communications is the field of study concerned with the transmission of information through various means. It can also be defined as technology employed in transmitting messages. It can also be defined as the inter-transmitting the content of data (speech, signals, pulses etc.) from one node to another. A communication system is a combination of processes and the hardware used to accomplish the transfer of the Information (communication). Acommunications subsystemis afunctional unitoroperational assemblythat is smaller than the larger assembly under consideration. Examples of communications subsystems in theDefense Communications System(DCS) are: (a)A satellite linkwith oneEarth terminalinCONUSand one in Europe (b)The interconnect facilities at each Earth terminal of the satellite link (c)An optical fiber cablewith its driver and receiver in either of the interconnect facilities. Communication subsystem (b) basically consists of a receiver,frequency translatorand a transmitter. It also containstranspondersand other transponders in it andcommunication satellitecommunication system receives signals from theantenna subsystem. A communication system providesus only with a channel for the mutual informationexchange which is not apriori dedicated to certain categories ofinformationonly. Communication system consists of Analog and Digital communication. 3. ANALOG COMMUNICATION Analog communication is a communication method of conveying voice, data, image, signal or video information using a continuous signal which varies in amplitude, phase, or some other property in proportion to that of a variable. It could be the transfer of an analog source signal using an analog modulation method such as FM or AM, or no modulation at all. Analog transmission is still very popular, in particular for shorter distances, due to significantly lower costs and complex multiplexing and timing equipment is unnecessary, and in small short-haul systems that simply do not need multiplexed digital transmission. However, in situations where a signal often has high signal-to-noise ratio and cannot achieve source linearity, or in long distance, high output systems, analog is unattractive due to attenuation problems. Furthermore, as digital techniques continue to be refined, analog systems are increasingly becoming legacy equipment. Recently, some nations, such as the Netherlands, have completely ceased analog transmissions on certain media, such as television, for the purposes of the government saving money. Analog systems are very tolerant to noise, make good use of bandwidth, and are easy to manipulate mathematically. However, analog signals require hardware receivers and transmitters that are designed to perfectly fit the particular transmission. If you are working on a new system, and you decide to change your analog signal, you need to completely change your transmitters and receivers. Analog signals are signals with continuous values. Analog signals are used in many systems, although the use of analog signals has declined with the advent of cheap digital signals. 4. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION Digital communications is the physical transfer of data(a digital bit stream) over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint transmission medium. Examples of such media are copper wires,optical fibers,wireless communication media, and storage media. The data is often represented as an electro-magnetic signal, such as an electrical voltage signal or an infra-red signal. Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source, for example a computer or a keyboard. It may also be ananalog signal such as a phone call or a video signal,digitized into a bit-stream for example using pulse-code modulation(PCM) or more advanced source coding(data compression) schemes. This source coding and decoding is carried out by codec equipment. Digital communication enables the data to be transmitted in an efficient manner through the use of digitally encoded information sent through data signals. These data signals are easily compressed and, as such, can be transmitted with accuracy and speed. Unlike in an analog communications where the continuity of a varying signal can not be broken, in a digital communication a digital transmission can be broken down into packets as discrete messages. Transmitting data in discrete messages not only facilitates the error detection and correction but also enables a greater signal processing capability. Digital communication has, in large part, replaced analog communication as the ideal form of transmitting information through computer and mobile technologies. The information source generates particular symbols at a particular rate. The source encoder translates these symbols in sequences of 0s and 1s. The channel encoder is oriented towards translating sequences of 0s and 1s to other sequences of 0s and 1s, to realize high transmission reliability and efficiency. The modulator accepts streams of 0s and 1s, and converts them to electrical waveforms suitable for transmission. The communication channel provides the electrical connection between the source and destination. It has a finite bandwidth, and the waveform transmitted suffers from amplitude distortion and phase distortion. In addition to distortion, power is decreased due to attenuation of the channel. Finally, the waveform is corrupted by unwanted electrical signals, referred to as noise. The primary objective of a communication system is to suppress the bad effects of noise as much as possible. The inverse process takes place at the destination side. The demodulator converts the electrical waveforms to sequences of 0s and 1s, the channel decoder translates the sequence of 0s and 1s to the original sequence of 0s and 1s. It also performs error correction and clock recovery. The source decoder finally translates the sequence of 0s and 1s into symbols. 5. ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION: a). It is fast and easier. b). No paper is wasted. c). The messages can be stored in the device for longer times, without being damaged, unlike paper files that easily get damages or attacked by insects. d). Digital communication can be done over large distances through internet and other things. e). It is comparatively cheaper and the work which requires a lot of people can be done simply by one person as folders and other such facilities can be maintained. f). It removes semantic barriers because the written data can be easily chaned to different languages using software. g). It provides facilities like video conferencing which save a lot of time, money and effort. 6. DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION: a). It is unreliable as the messages cannot be recognised by signatures. Though software can be developed for this, yet the software can be easily hacked. b). Sometimes, the quickness of digital communication is harmful as messages can be sent with the click of a mouse. The person does not think and sends the message at an impulse. c). Digital Communication has completely ignored the human touch. A personal touch cannot be established because all the computers will have the same font! d). The establishment of Digital Communication causes degradation of the environment in some cases. Electronic waste is an example. The vibes given out by the telephone and cell phone towers are so strong that they can kill small birds. In fact the common sparrow has vanished due to so many towers coming up as the vibrations hit them on the head. e). Digital Communication has made the whole world to be an office. The people carry their work to places where they are supposed to relax. The whole world has been made into an office. Even in the office, digital communication causes problems because personal messages can come on your cell phone, internet, etc. f). Many people misuse the efficiency of Digital Communication. 7. COMPARISON OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION ANALOG Analog signals are signals with continuous values. Analog signals are used in many systems, although the use of analog signals has declined with the advent of cheap digital signals. Analog systems are very tolerant to noise, make good use of bandwidth, and are easy to manipulate mathematically. However, analog signals require hardware receivers and transmitters that are designed to perfectly fit the particular transmission. If you are working on a new system, and you decide to change your analog signal, you need to completely change your transmitters and receivers. DIGITAL Digital signals are signals that are represented by binary numbers, 1 or 0. The 1 and 0 values can correspond to different discrete voltage values, and any signal that doesnt quite fitinto the scheme just gets rounded off. Digital signals are intolerant to noise, and digital signals can be completely corrupted in the presence of excess noise. In digital signals, noise could cause a 1 to be interpreted as a 0 and vice versa, which makes the received data different than the original data. Imagine if the army transmitted a position coordinate to a missile digitally, and a single bit was received in error? This single bit error could cause a missile to miss its target by miles. Luckily, there are systems in place to prevent this sort of scenario, such as checksums and CRCs, which tell the receiver when a bit has been corrupted and ask the transmitter to resend the data. The primary benefit of digital signals is that they can be handled by simple, standardized receivers and transmitters, and the signal can be then dealt with in software (which is comparatively cheap to change). Analog communication systems, amplitude modulation (AM) radio being a typifying example, can inexpensively communicate a bandlimited analog signal from one location to another (point-to-point communication) or from one point to many (broadcast). Although it is not shown here, the coherent receiver provides the largest possible signal-to-noise ratio for the demodulated message.An analysis of this receiver thus indicates that some residual error will always be present in an analog systems output. Although analog systems are less expensive in many cases than digital ones for the same application, digital systems offer much more efficiency, better performance, and much greater flexibility. 1. Efficiency: The Source Coding Theorem allows quantification of just how complex a given message source is and allows us to exploit that complexity by source coding (compression). In analog communication, the only parameters of interest are message bandwidth and amplitude. We cannot exploit signal structure to achieve a more efficient communication system. 2. Performance: Because of the Noisy Channel Coding Theorem, we have a specific criterion by which to formulate error-correcting codes that can bring us as close to error-free transmission as we might want. Even though we may send information by way of a noisy channel, digital schemes are capable of error-free transmission while analog ones cannot overcome channel disturbances; see this problem for a comparison. 3. Flexibility: Digital communication systems can transmit real-valued discrete-time signals, which could be analog ones obtained by analog-to-digital conversion,andsymbolic-valued ones (computer data, for example). Any signal that can be transmitted by analog means can be sent by digital means, with the only issue being the number of bits used in A/D conversion (how accurately do we need to represent signal amplitude). Images can be sent by analog means (commercial television), but better communication performance occurs when we use digital systems (HDTV). In addition to digital communications ability to transmit a wider variety of signals than analog systems, point-to-point digital systems can be organized into global (and beyond as well) systems that provide efficient and flexible information transmission.Computer networks, explored in the next section, are what we call such systems today. Even analog-based networks, such as the telephone system, employ modern computer networking ideas rather than the purely analog systems of the past. Consequently, with the increased speed of digital computers, the development of increasingly efficient algorithms, and the ability to interconnect computers to form a communications infrastructure, digital communication is now the best choice for many situations. Advantages and disadvantages of analog vs digital communication: 1. The first advantage of digital communication against analog is its noise immunity.In any transmission path some unwanted voltage or noise is always present which cannot be eliminated fully.when signal is transmitted this noise gets added to the original signal causing the distortion of the signal.However in a digital communication at the receiving end this additive noise can be eliminated to great extent easily resulting in better recovery of actual signal. In the case of analog communication its difficult to remove the noise once added to the signal. 2. Security is the another priority of messaging the services in the modern days.The Digital communication provides better security to messages than the analog communication.It can be achieved through various coding techniques available in digital communication. 3. In a digital communication the signal is digitised to a stream of 0 s and 1 s. So at the receiver side a simple decision has to me made whether the received signal is a 0 or a 1.Accordingly the receiver circuit becomes simpler as compared to the analog receiver circuit. 4. When signal is travelling through its transmission path gets faded gradually. So on its path it needs to be reconstructed to its actual form and re-transmitted many times.For that reason AMPLIFIERS are used for analog communication and REPEATERS are used in digital communication.amplifiers are needed every 2 to 3 Kms apart where as repeaters are neede every 5 to 6 Kms apart.So definitely digital communication is cheaper.Amplifiers also often add non-linearities that distort the actual signal. 5. Bandwidth is another scarce resource.Various Digital communication techniques are available that use the available bandwidth much efficiently than analog communication techniques. 6. When audio and video signals are transmitted digitally an AD(Analog to Digital) converter is needed at tansmitting side and a DA(Digital to Analog) converter is again needed at receiver side.While transmitted in analog communication these devices are not needed. 7. Digital signals are often an approximation of the analog data(like voice or video) that is obtained through a process called quantisation. The digital representation is never the exact signal but its most closely approximated digital form.So its accuracy depends on the degree of approximation taken in quantisation process. Digital communication has several advantages over analog communication system. Some are explained below: 1. Analog circuits require amplifiers, and each amplifier adds distortion and noise to the signal. 2. In contrast, digital amplifiers regenerate an exact signal, eliminating cumulative errors. An incoming (analog) signal is sampled, its value is determined, and the node then generates a new signal from the bit value; the incoming signal is discarded. With analog circuits, intermediate nodes amplify the incoming signal, noise and all. 3. Voice, data, video, etc. can all by carried by digital circuits. What about carrying digital signals over analog circuit? The modem example shows the difficulties in carrying digital over analog.

Compare The Young Ravens That Call Upon Him and When Twilight Falls Upon The Stump Lots :: essays research papers

Compare The Young Ravens That Call Upon Him and When Twilight Falls Upon The Stump Lots  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sir Charles G.D Roberts' stories "The Young Ravens That Call Upon Him" and "When Twilight Falls Upon The Stump Lots" are similar in a lot of ways.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The point of view in the Young Ravens story is told from the eagle, the point of view in the Stump Lots is omniscient. In the "young ravens" story the eagle is the protagonist and the ewe is the antagonist. In the "stump lots" story the bear is the protagonist and the cow is the antagonist.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In both stories the setting is beautifully described with a lot of description. They both take place in nature during the spring. One story however takes place in a valley wile the other takes place in the stump lots. There is pathetic fallacy in the description of both stories.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The plot of both stories is quite similar. They are both about hunting larger prey to survive, both about the motherly instinct of protectingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? ones youngà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. However in the stump lots no one comes out a head and in theà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? ravensà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? story the eagles seem to come out satisfied, although the story does not go into great detail about the eagles fate. In the stump lots story man is present and the story ends with an irony of situation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is foreshadowing in the young ravens story because it keeps on mentioning how unsafe the valley was for the ewe and lamb to be wondering around alone with out the rest of the flock. Also the story kept saying how hunger the eaglets were.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The theme in the young ravens story is....... one animal destroys another while innocently fulfilling the laws of its own nature. The theme in the other story is.....size and strength does not always prevail against an animals motherly instinct in nature, however man can make all the efforts in vain.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the young ravens story a filling of piety is created towards the lamb because it had not yet had a chance to live. Also you feel sorry for the ewe because it is wondering around helplessly looking for her lamb separated in the wild from her flock.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the stump lot story you feel sorry for the bear because she is just trying to feed her cubs and she gets killed. Also when the dying bears last wish to get to her cubs is denied from her you cant help but feel bad.. You feel pity for the cow because all her efforts of trying to

Averting Problems in the New Millennium Essay -- Technology

Averting Problems in the New Millennium As we approach the end of this century, many people have raised concerns regarding the serious issues surrounding the Y2K problems. Although no one knows precisely what will happen on January 1, 2000, the general opinion is that Y2K related problems will cause failures of basic services including utilities, water and phone service. Contrary to popular opinion, I believe that the Y2K problems will have more of a positive effect on our society because it has caused us to analyze more carefully, the data and the technology we rely on in everyday situations. In addition, the new millennium will usher an era of tremendous opportunities for technological advancements in our society. In other words, the current preparations to avert a Y2K crisis, has given us an advantage which will minimize technological breakdowns in the future and create new technology which will ensure a relatively smooth transition into the new millennium. The main focus of our concerns regarding the Y2K crisis is the fact that we know precisely when it is scheduled to begin and "this appointment with destiny cannot be postponed or avoided" (Jeffrey 10). During the past eighteen months, we have been bombarded with extensive information in the media regarding the Y2K problem including predictions on how it will impact our society. This problem can be traced back to approximately forty years ago, when programmers in the fledging computer industry made a fateful decision to save memory and space by recording year dates with only two digits. Unfortunately, no one anticipated that these early computer programs and mainframes would still be using these systems in 1999. As a result, this technological glitch may cause compute... ...other utilities, hopefully for short periods and the worst case scenario, could be a few weeks. However, these incidents will not translate into doomsday proportions and will not mean the "end of the world" as we know it. There is less reason to panic over Y2K because unlike the many natural disasters that we experienced in the United States we were able to proactively address this crisis. I am certain that we will witness one of the best New Year's Eve celebration in this century as the Waterford crystal ball is expected to drop and glow " 2000" in brilliant lights and the city lights will stay on. Works Cited Gould, Stephen Jay. Questioniung the Millennium. New York: Harmony Books, 1999. Seymour, Jim PC Magazine. "The Year 2000 Countdown" New York: April 1999. Jeffrey, Grant R. The Millennium Meltdown. Toronto: Frontier Research Publication, Inc., 1998.

Sustainable policy development considering general environmental overview

IntroductionSustainability has been an of import job, sing general environmental overview. In modern corporate universe with increased outsourcing and due to competitory market, sustainability has been a large issue. This issue is because of jobs in retracing merchandise ‘s beginning of beginning. Sustainability has a immense planetary impact but there a really few methodological analysiss, which incorporate planetary concern. Sustainability is a necessity and should be purely followed to avoid greater environmental issues. Sustainability has to be assessed on a regular basis by local regulating organic structures and demands to respond suitably. In these old ages legion models have been structured to analyze assorted exposure impacting people due to environmental alterations. Vulnerability analyses can be used by directors during a development of a undertaking or while bordering policies. A elaborate literature reappraisal is carried out to understand restraints and methodolog ical analysiss to build a exposure model and its benefits are discussed. A sustainability issue arises when a object/system is under menace of drastic or gradual environmental influence. Best sustainable plan should place environmental hazards/impacts on a system and should besides bring forth necessary recommendations to avoid these impacts. It besides needs to admit certain necessary actions to change by reversal few impacts which is already caused to either system or physical milieus.Literature ReviewSustainable policy developmentThe impression sustainability can be termed as configuration of assorted issues affecting human development and environment. Achieving sustainability is still a job because current environmental research and implying constabularies are still partial towards natural scientific disciplines ( Egon Becker 2002 ) . Harmonizing to World Commission on Environment and Development, sustainability reference, following issues, ( Dovers 1994 )PopulationHuman resourc eFood securitySpeciessEcosystemsEnergyWaste productionResource usageUrbanizationPeace and securitySustainability can be defined as â€Å"meets the demands of the present without compromising the ability of future coevalss to run into their ain demands ( Dovers 1994 ) † . Sustainability has now emerged as a planning construct, to develop and pull off a community ( Emmanuel Adinyira n.d. ) . Globally sustainability issue has become a outstanding issue while sing policy ( Tony Meppem 1998 ) . Harmonizing to ( Emmanuel Adinyira n.d. ) , sustainable appraisal means using huge rules of sustainability and analyzing ‘what ‘ actions may take to ‘which ‘ environmental issues and ‘how ‘ much magnitude can this issue affect. It is besides used in context for supervising patterned advance of an administration or community towards sustainably. In context of sustainable development, these methodological analysiss influences impact sustainable appraisals o f proposed undertakings or policies before their execution assisting towards a sustainable hereafter. ( MOSER 1998 ) Debates that recent sustainable policy recommendations for rural development has changed ‘landscape ‘ by sing exposure constructs influenced by drouth, exigencies, war etc. , . As other cultural developments, even sustainable policy bordering aims depending on involvement and position of assorted topics like, corporate enterpriser, ecologist, and environmental activities. Continuity of different positions and motivation ‘s will impede an emerging policy way due to miss of consensus ( Tony Meppem 1998 ) . These issues should be addressed by foregrounding few critical success factors resolved by environmental militant to act upon corporate giants to amend directivity towards sustainable policy ‘s development. Thus a exposure model developed should eliminate complexness and should concentrate on ( 1 ) Identifying exposure and its impact in order t o prioritise their actions. ( 2 ) Design of policy determination measuring exposure impacts ( Luers 2005 ) . Sustainability needs to turn to assorted issues, which influences environment either for a short or long span. These issues can bring forth little or irreversible long impact on our environment. A strong administration organic structure should be established to organize with local governments to run and connote environmental constabularies to direct them towards sustainability. Before we analyse their exposure, it is necessary to understand assorted issues that concerns our modern changing universe. Harmonizing to ( Dovers 1994 ) these issues are,Vulnerability: Sustainability ConceptVulnerability is the extent to which a system is adapts or non to adverse environmental effects like clime alteration etc, . ( M.J. Metzger 2006 ) . Properties of universe is altering and their inauspicious effects are expected to increase over the following decennary ( M.J. Metzger 2006 ) , therefore a clear apprehension of these issues and effects demands to be understood carefully and incorporated whil e developing future undertakings. A exposure analysis helps to prioritise these effects and besides helps in bordering subsequent possible steps. Thus exposure is defined which include both traditional impact appraisals and its version to cover with possible impacts on environment ( Luers 2005 ) . It is highly hard to analyze comparative magnitude of sustainability issues due to its unsure complexness, this issue is cemented by graduating information and inevitable recommendations turn toing a wide and divergent group ( Corporate, ecologist, environmental militant etc. , ) ( Dovers 1994 ) . The construct of exposure is misunderstood with poorness in different states. But in existent ‘poverty ‘ is more inactive issue that can be addressed by specific attack improbable Vulnerability is more a dynamic issue and needs changeless monitoring and needs to be addressed by situational and strategic attack ( MOSER 1998 ) . Few critical causes for regional exposure are improper direction, practises and geographical concerns. Governments, regulating sustainability have issues in bordering policy ‘s as discussed earlier ; table 2 illustrates few issues sing the same. The issues, harmonizing to writer ( Dovers 1994 ) are classified under two major categorizations ( 1 ) Pro blem bordering properties and ( 2 ) Response Framing attributes. Vulnerability of a conjugate human-environment systems and subsequent policy and model developments needs to reply inquiries like ‘who ‘ is affected, ‘what ‘ are the features of these exposure and ‘where ‘ does necessary alterations required.

Culture in the Middle East Essay

With beautiful gardens, polished township and enthralling landscape, Zabidi was the town enticed by Ibn Batuta and is cherished by every one who visits. Anne Meneley explored the beauty of this place in her â€Å"Tournaments of Value: Sociability and Hierarchy in a Yemeni Town† but beyond this she explored various dynamics of the women’s life in the social context of the place. She unveils veiling body images of women in context to the politically and sexually stimulated men and their influence on them. Anne analyzes the hierarchical and competitive structures of all kinds of the social visits of the Yemeni women as most important markers of their individual and group identity in context to their social position they attain in the patriarchy society. The following essay is a revelation of the women veiled in the Islamic world of Yemen and how Anne Meneley draws on the social life of women who embody themselves as veiling women within their own precincts structure. Veil for these women has become a symbol of independence and exertion of their voice in the vicinity of their social construed environment yet more they feel independent more they are subjugated and subordinated fulfilling the political and social desire of the males. If any non-Muslim is asked about any one aspect of Islam, the immediate answer will be the â€Å"veil† of a woman. It’s a covering of women according to the Islamic law but this is not as simple as mere covering as it involves the complete theorem in the light of the western culture. Veiling in Islam is more a political issue in both the Muslim and Western countries reflecting on the tension between the fundamental values so enshrined in the society be it advocating for the equal rights in the public place, the place of religion in education, and individual rights in the multiculturalism and multi-confessionalism. It is the issue of how the social values and traditional roles of women are taken and adopted in the westernized emerging social order for e. g. in political organizations, university campuses, urban centers and other public places etc? Nilufer Gole finds out, â€Å"The veiling is commonly perceived as a force of obscurantism and is often identified with women’s subservience; as such, it is interpreted as blurring the clear cut oppositions between religion and modernity and as an affront to the contemporary notions of gender emancipation and universal progress. † (Gole, 4) Therefore, the Islamists veiling signifies a conflict of the two opposing concepts of the self and society, Western and Islamist. Symbolically women’s covered bodies invigorate the contemporary movement taking the social life of Islam in its sway yet it is different from secularism approach. Here the veiling is not just the Islamic movement but also focuses on the central role it plays in highlighting the gender issue in the understanding of the Islam and in the criticism of the culture westernization. The importance of the Islamic movement is only understood in light of their conflicting relation with the westernized world through the politically and socially construed rights of women’s body and their voices. (Gole, 4) The veil is considered as an instrument in curtailing the westernized culture and to re-impose and strengthen the Islamic values. It has more of the religious connotations and complex associations. Veiling is a process to meet the expecting demands of women in the changing society while retaining their traditional living. Veil has become their way to express their distress while retaining their domesticity. They have successfully combined their marriage and family with their independence of working outside. Veil is not a threat for them but a newly acquired independence. (Craik, 29) Veil has become a form of their body technique to unleash much broader struggles. In the year 1990, the Hat law in Turkey promoted the women’s body to be displayed in public sphere and organizing of the beauty pageants to promote the head scarf that became the symbol of political Islam. In this way the public sphere is formed encouraging debates and discussions through visual displays, and bodily inscriptions. (Cinar, 55) It is not only politically motivated concept but follows what Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad said, â€Å"if you do not have modesty, you can do what you want. † (Meneley, 81) The Hadith of the Prophet talked about the importance of modesty in the social life. For the women of Zabidi, veiling is a very complex phenomenon; they have to conceal their bodies from all other unknown men. They do not veil inside their houses except for their father’s brother or mother’s brother. Every time women leaves her house, she has to cover herself with a black chador and face with black muslin. A girl while appearing on a street can only wear a headscarf and a dress but only till her breasts develop; these garments are worn outside their home often in the public places. Chadors have become a means for them to enter into a respectable society. (Meneley, 89) It becomes a matter of great modesty for women as a daughter, wife or a mother. She has to abide by the modesty of being a follower of certain rituals and customs in the household. For Zabidi women, modesty is their proper and pious comportment as it ensures family honor and guarantees them as pious. Within this socially construed atmosphere are the women who never show their reluctance to express themselves on what they think of other’s behavior, in this way they show their independence. They often employ themselves in the conversation, interpreting what others are saying and commenting on their actions. Zabidi women were socially forced to adopt the particular style of veiling, circumcision and gender segregation from time to time. Their modest practices show they abide and follow what they could do to maintain the family honor and implies woman as the most pious subject of God. Circumcision is thought to bring the ability in women to control their passion and this control over the sexuality they would attain through training. They have to abide by the hierarchical relationships and exhibit themselves as most virtuous. In the complicated ways, the moral values are contravened with the distinction in the class, which entitles women to their own subordination. (Meneley, 97-98) These customs and conventions are â€Å"central to the social reproduction of hierarchical relationship† (Meneley, 98) in the life of Zabidi with the destiny of women shaped by the society. At the advent of the twenty first century, the veiled Muslim still is the representation of the oppressive women and act as a symbol and cue to enhance the motivation of the radical Islamists. This whole concept of the veiled women began in the early nineteenth and twentieth century when European colonists were considering the only way of emancipation of the women of the Islamic world is when they follow the western feminism. This concept was visualized by radical Islamists as the curtailment and destruction of their indigenous culture and they used women’s body and their veiling to bring yet again their rich Islamic culture at the focus of the westernized world. Works Cited Cinar, Alev. â€Å"Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey: Bodies, Places, and Time†. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2005. Craik, Jennifer. â€Å"The Face of Fashion†. New York: Routledge, 1993. Gole, Nilufer. â€Å"The Forbidden Modern: Civilization and Veiling†. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1997. Meneley, Anne. â€Å"Tournaments of Value: Sociability and Hierarchy in a Yemeni Town. † Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996.

Exploring Programming Languages

Structured Query Language (SQL) is a standard database computer language used for querying, modifying and managing data in Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS). SQL was developed in the 1970's by IBM to initially manipulate and retrieve data in IBM System R. The SQL language was standardized in 1986 by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI); however, later releases were released as International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards.Until this day, there are lots of users who refuse to refer to it as SQL. To some people, SEQUEL is the right name for this international standardized database language. SQL has additionally been revised in 1989 and then 1992 (SQL-92). Ever since, SQL has undergone many revisions to enhance their standardization.Sybase and Ashton with their team support created a product which is known with the name of the SQL server 1.0 and within few years SQL server 4.21 also came in existence for the Microsoft NT operating system. Micros oft itself on their individual basis work for the SQL server 6.0 and this was the first Individual product of the SQL series for the Microsoft which works with the Windows NT because at that point of time windows NT was the main operating system.After few years later, when a copyrights conflict is there between the Microsoft and Sybase then Microsoft has done so many revisions in its project which lead to the development of the SQL server 7.0 which is known with the name of SQL server 2000 and the main part of this scheme and model is that it can work with the 64 bit platform.The development of the Integrated development Environment for the creation of web and windows packages with the SQL server 2005 that includes so many tools and utilities that includes the ETL tool, a Reporting server, data mining server, and several messaging service brokers that will be for the notification services. The next version which was come after the Microsoft SQL Server2005 is the Microsoft SQL server 2008, the aim of which is to make the data management features still under control using self-tuning.SQL Server 2008 R2 whose code name is given as â€Å"Kilomanjaro† and it is announced on year 2009, to add different management features to the SQL Server 2008 which is the earlier version. The SQL Server 2008 R2 also includes the number of new services that includes the PowerPivot for the Excel and Sharepoint master data services for building the reports using the data tier application.2.The features of SQL Express are as follows:Stored ProceduresSQL Server Configuration Manager ViewsReplication (as a subscriber only) TriggersAdvanced Query Optimizer CursorsSMO/RMO sqlcmd and osql utilitiesIntegration with Visual Studio 2005 Snapshot Isolation LevelsService Broker (as a client only) ¹ Native XML support, including XQuery and XML SchemasSQL CLR Transact-SQL language supportMultiple Active Result Sets (MARS) Dedicated Administrator Connection ²The features of Oracle Expres s are as follows: Direct Path Load API External tables External procedures Synchronous Change Data Capture Asynchronous Change Data Capture Transportable tablespaces, including cross-platform Advanced Queuing Basic Replication Advanced Replication Distributed queries Distributed transactions Transparent Gateways Generic connectivityThe features of DB2 Express are as follows:Advanced Copy ServicesOracle Compatibility Compression: backuppureXML ® storage High availability disaster recoverySpatial Extender Homogenous FederationIBM Tivoli ® System Automation for Multiplatforms Homogenous SQL Replication IBM Data Studio Net Search Extender Online reorganization The free version of DB2 (DB2 Express-C) has much less limitations than those existing in Oracle and SQL Server, Oracle Express Edition 10g/11g and SQL Server 2005/2008 Express.CharacteristicDB2 Express-CSQL Server 2005/2008 ExpressOracle 10g/11g Express Edition CPUs MaxUntil 2 cores11 RAM Max2 GB1 GB1 GB Size LimitUnlimited4 G B4 GB/11 GB 32/64 bits32-64 bits32 bits / 32-64 bits32 bits / 32-64 bits

Introducing government in america Essay

A. Defining Democracy 1. Democracy is a means of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy reflects citizens’ preferences. B. Traditional Democratic Theory 1. Equality in voting 2. Effective participation 3. Enlightened understanding 4. Citizen control of the agenda 5. Inclusion 6. Democracies must practice majority rule and preserve minority rights. 7. The relationship between the few leaders and the many followers is one of representation. C. Three Contemporary Theories of American Democracy 1. Pluralist theory states that groups with shared interests influence public policy by pressing their concerns through organized efforts. 2. Elite and class theory contends that societies are divided along class lines, and that an upper-class elite pulls the strings of government. 3. Hyperpluralism contends that many groups are so strong that government is unable to act. D. Challenges to Democracy 1. Increased Technical Expertise 2. Limited Participation in Government 3. Escalating Campaign Costs 4. Diverse Political Interests (policy gridlock) E. American Political Culture and Democracy 1. Political culture consists of the overall set of values widely shared within a society. 2. Liberty 3. Egalitarianism 4. Individualism 5. Laissez-faire 6. Populism F. A Culture War? (Is America polarized into rival political camps with different political cultures?) G. Preview Questions about Democracy VI. The Scope of Government in America (pp. 23–26) A. How Active Is American Government? B. Preview Questions about the Scope of Government VII. Summary (p. 26) LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying Chapter 1, you should be able to: 1. Describe what government is and what governments do. 2. Understand how politics is the struggle over â€Å"who gets what, when, and how.† 3. Identify the important features of the policymaking system and explain how public policies are the choices that government makes—and declines to make—in response to political issues. 4. Understand the nature of democratic government and traditional democratic theory, and the key questions concerning democracy. 5. Distinguish among the three contemporary theories of American democracy and politics (pluralist, elite and class, and hyperpluralist) and identify some of their strengths and weaknesses. 6. Understand the nature of American political culture and identify the elements of the American creed. 7. Understand the nature of the scope of government in America and the key questions concerning the scope of government. The following exercises will help you meet these objectives: Objective 1: Describe what government is and what governments do. 1. Define the term â€Å"government.† The institutions that make authoritative decisions for any given society. 2. What are the two fundamental questions about governing that serve as themes throughout the textbook? 1. How should we govern? 2. What should government do? 3. List the five functions that all national governments perform. 1. Maintain a national defense 2. Provide public services 3. Preserve order 4. Socialize the young 5. Collect taxes Objective 2: Understand that politics is the struggle over â€Å"who gets what, when, and how.† 1. Define the term â€Å"politics.† Determines whom we select as our governmental leaders and what policies these leaders pursue. 2. Give examples of the â€Å"who,† â€Å"what,† â€Å"when,† and â€Å"how† of politics. 1. Who: Voters, candidates, groups, and parties 2. What: New taxes, medical care for the elderly 3. When: When people speak up 4. How: Voting, supporting, compromising, lobbying Objective 3: Identify the important features of the policy system and explain how public policies are the choices that government makes, and declines to make, in response to political issues. 1. Draw a diagram of how a policy system works. Political issues get on policy agenda Policymakers make policy Policies affect people People Linkage institutions Policy Agenda Policymaking institutions Policy People 2. List four key linkage institutions in a democratic society. 1. Parties 2. Interest groups 3. Media 4. Elections 3. Define the term â€Å"policy agenda.† The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actually involved in politics at in given point in time. 4. How does a government’s policy agenda change? Responds more to societal failures than successes. For example, when jobs are scarce and business productivity is falling, economic problems occupy a high position in the agenda. 5. List the four major policymaking institutions in the United States. 1. Congress 2. The Presidency 3. The Courts 4. Bureaucracies 6. Define the term â€Å"policy impacts.† The effects a policy has on people and problems. Impacts are analyzed to see how well a policy has met its goal and at what cost. Objective 4: Understand the nature of democratic government, traditional democratic theory, and the key questions concerning democracy. 1. Define the term â€Å"democracy† as used in this text. A system of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the public’s preferences. 2. List the five cornerstones of an ideal democracy. 1. Equality in voting 2. Effective participation 3. Enlightened understanding 4. Citizen control of the agenda 5. Inclusion 3. Explain the principles of majority rule and minority rights. When choosing among alternatives, the will of over half the voters should be followed, but restraints protecting the minority’s rights. Objective 5: Distinguish among the three contemporary theories of American democracy and politics (pluralist, elite and class, and hyperpluralist) and identify some of their strengths and weaknesses. 1. Complete the following table comparing pluralist, elite and class, and hyperpluralist theories according to who holds the power and how policy is made. Theory| Who Holds Power| How Policy is Made| Pluralist| Groups with shared interests| Pressing their concernsthrough organized efforts| Elite and Class| Upper -class| They can afford to finance election campaigns and control key institutions| Hyperpluralist| Groups| Groups are so strong that government is weakened| 2. List the major challenges facing American democracy. 1. Increased Technical Expertise 2. Limited Participation in Government 3. Escalating Campaign Costs 4. Diverse Political Interests Objective 6: Understand the nature of American political culture and identify the elements of the American creed. 1. What is ‘political culture’ and why is it crucial to understanding American government? An overall set of values widely shared within a society. It is crucial to understanding American government because Americans are so diverse in terms of ancestries, religions, and heritages. A set of shared beliefs and values unites Americans. 2. List and give an example of the five elements of the American creed according to Seymour Martin Lipset. 1. Liberty 2. Egalitarianism 3. Individualism 4. Laissez – faire 5. Populism 3. List three ways in which America might be experiencing a crisis of cultural values. 1. A loss over time of traditional values, such as the importance of religion and family life 2. An unfavorable comparison with the citizens of other countries in terms of values such as patriotism or support for moral principles 3. The division of society into opposed groups with irreconcilable moral differences Objective 7: Understand the nature of the scope of government in America and the key questions concerning the scope of government. 1. Make a list of items that illustrate the scope of American government. Owns 1/3 of the land I the U.S., owns and operates over 400,000 nonmilitary vehicles, employs over 2.2 million people, etc 2. What is gross domestic product and how does the term illustrate the scope of American government? The sum total of the value of all the goods and services produced in a nation. Gross domestic product illustrates the scope of American government because it not only spends large sums of money but also employs large numbers of people. About 18 million Americans work for our government. KEY TERMS Identify and describe: Government – The institutions that make authoritative decisions for any given society public goods – Services the government provides that can be shared by everyone and cannot be denied to anyone politics – Determines whom we select as our governmental leaders and what policies these leaders pursue political participation – The ways in which people get involved in politics single-issue groups – Groups so concerned with one issue that members cast their votes on the basis of that issue only, ignoring the politicians stand on everything else policymaking system – Reveals the way our government responds to the priorities of its people linkage institutions – The political channels through which people’s concerns become political issues on the policy agenda. In the US, linkage institutions include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media. policy agenda – The issues that attract the serious attention of publ ic officials and other people actively involved in politics at any given time political issue – The result of people disagreeing about a problem or about the public policy needed to fix it policymaking institutions – Congress, the presidency, and the courts public policy – Every decision the government makes policy impacts – The effects that a policy has on people and on society’s problems democracy – A means of selecting policymakers and organizing government so that policy reflects citizen’s preferences majority rule – In choosing among alternatives, the will of over half the voters should be followed minority rights – Rights the majority cannot infringe on representation – The relationship between the few leaders and the many citizens pluralist theory – States that groups with shared interests influence public policy by pressing their concerns through organized efforts elite and class theory – Contends that our society, like all societies, is divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite pulls the strings of government hyperpluralism – Groups are so strong that government is weakened, as influence of many groups cripples government’s ability to make policy policy gridlock – Each policy coalition finds its way blocked by others political culture – The overall set of values widely shared within American society Gross domestic product – The total value of all goods and services produced annually by the United States Name that term: 1. Something in which any member of society can share without diminishing the supply to any other member of society. ____Public Goods__________ 2. It consists of subjects and problems getting the attention of government officials and their associates. _________________________ 3. This is a choice that government makes in response to an issue on its agenda. ____Policy Agenda_________ 4. This arises when people disagree about a problem or about public policy choices made to combat a problem. _____Political Issue________ 5. Political parties, elections, and interest groups are the main ones in the United States. _____Linkage Institutions___ 6. The effects a policy has on people and on society’s problems. _____Policy Impacts_______ 7. The most fundamental aspect of democratic theory. _____Majority Rule_______ 8. According to this theory of American government, many groups are so strong and numerous that the government is unable to act. _____Hyperpluralism______ 9. This problem is magnified when voters choose a president from one party and congressional majorities from the other party. ____Policy Gridlock_______ 10. A key factor that holds American democracy together. ____Political Culture________ 11. The total value of all goods and services produced annually by the United States. __Gross Domestic Product____ MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS Circle the correct answer: 1. Which of the following statements is TRUE? a. There is no relationship between political knowledge and age. b. In the mid-1960s, there was virtually no relationship between political knowledge and age; now, in the early twenty-first century, political knowledge increases with age. c. In the mid-1960s, there was virtually no relationship between political knowledge and age; now, in the early twenty-first century, political knowledge decreases with age. d. Today, in the early twenty-first century, there is virtually no relationship between political knowledge and age; in the mid-1960s, political knowledge increased with age. e. Today, in the early twenty-first century, there is virtually no relationship between political knowledge and age; in the mid-1960s, political knowledge decreased with age. 2. Political scientists argue that higher levels of political knowledge a. foster tolerance. b. foster intolerance. c. promote partisanship. d. promote bipartisanship. e. increase wealth. 3. Despite their differences, all governments a. provide public services. b. maintain a national defense. c. collect taxes. d. All of the above e. C only 4. Which of the following is an example of a public good? a. Libraries b. Parks c. College education d. All of the above e. Both a and b 5. Single-issue groups a. aid effective policymaking for the public interest. b. are concerned with a wide range of problems. c. have very little influence on voters or politicians. d. tend to have a narrow interest and to dislike compromise. e. view politics as a vocation, rather than as an avocation. 6. Which of the following is NOT a component of the policymaking system? a. People b. Linkage institutions c. Policy agenda d. Criminal justice institutions e. Policymaking institutions 7. Which of the following is TRUE of the policymaking system? a. Linkage institutions transmit people’s interests to government. b. Media investigate social problems and inform people about them. c. Elections enable Americans to make their opinions heard by choosing their public officials. d. People, linkage institutions, media, and elections all help to shape the policy agenda? e. All of the above 8. In a democratic society, parties, elections, interest groups, and the media are all examples of ____ between the preferences of citizens and the government’s policy agenda. a. cross-pollination b. inputs and outputs c. ideological bridges d. obstacles e. linkage institutions 9. Karl Marx and Freidrich Engels published a. The Communist Manifesto b. A Theory of Democracy c. The Federalist Papers d. Poor Richard’s Almanac e. War and Peace 10. Which of the following is NOT a type of public policy? a. Congressional statute b. Regulation c. Court decision d. Budgetary choices e. Mandate 11. The principle of â€Å"one person, one vote,† is an expression of the principle of a. equality in voting. b. effective participation. c. enlightened understanding. d. inclusion. e. citizen control of the agenda. 12. The principle of traditional democracy theory guaranteeing rights to those who do not belong to majorities and allows that they might join majorities through persuasion and reasoned argument is called the principle of a. majority rule. b. minority rights. c. representation. d. pluralism. e. enlightened understanding. 13. Pluralists a. believe that the public interest will prevail through bargaining and compromise. b. depend on fragmented, decentralized, and dispersed power in the policy process. c. oppose the principle of majority rule. d. compete through a system of â€Å"minority rule† for influence. e. All of the above 14. Who referred to the U.S. as a â€Å"nation of joiners†? a. Thomas Jefferson b. Alexis de Tocqueville c. Robert Putnam d. Ronald Reagan e. George H. W. Bush 15. Increased technical expertise poses a potential challenge to democracy because a. it is difficult to have an informed â€Å"nontechnical† public debate on technical issues. b. it goes against the tenets of pluralist political theory. c. it violates the notion of one man, one vote. d. elected officials find it hard to understand technical experts. e. interest groups have a difficult time securing technical expertise. 16. A condition that occurs when no coalition is strong enough to form a majority and establish policy is a. PAC. b. policy gridlock. c. policy failure. d. policy impact. e. hyperpluralist policy. 17. The overall set of values widely shared within a society is called the society’s a. political culture. b. public opinion. c. media influence. d. linkage institutions. e. popular culture. 18. America’s bountiful frontier provides a partial explanation for which element of the American creed? a. Egalitarianism b. Populism c. Individualism d. Opportunism e. Liberty 19. Which of the following is NOT a possible way that Americans may be experiencing a crisis of culture values, according to Wayne Baker? a. A loss of traditional values, such as religion and family life b. An unfavorable comparison with citizens of other countries in terms of patriotism and/or support for moral principles c. The division of society into opposed groups with irreconcilable moral differences d. A decline in citizens’ commitment to equal opportunity e. None of the above 20. Which of the following statements is TRUE? a. When expenditures grow, tax revenues must grow to pay the additional costs. b. When taxes do not grow as fast as spending, a budget deficit results. c. In 2009, the federal deficit was more than $400 billion. d. The national debt is more than $9 trillion. e. All of the above TRUE FALSE QUESTIONS Circle the correct answer: 1. The voter turnout rate among young Americans is consistently higher than among older Americans. T / F 2. Emergent communication technologies and the proliferation of television channels make it easier to avoid information about politics. T / F 3. All governments protect national sovereignty, frequently by maintaining a national defense and armed forces. T / F 4. The daily recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance in public schools is a tool of political socialization used to instill national values among the young. T / F 5. The courts are an example of a linkage institution. T / F 6. The policy agenda responds more to societal failures than it responds to societal successes. T / F 7. Most people around the world believe that democracy is the best form of government. T / F 8. Over one-third of the nation’s wealth is held by just 1 percent of the population. T / F 9. The tax burden on Americans is small compared to other democratic nations. T / F 10. Lincoln’s famous phrase, â€Å"government of the people, for the people, and by the people,† is a classic expression of laissez-faire. T / F

A Brief on Saakshar Bharat

The programme aims to further promote and strengthen Adult Education, specially of women, by extending educational options to those adults who having lost the opportunity of access to formal education and crossed the standard age for receiving such education, now feel a need for learning of any type, including, literacy, basic education (equivalency to formal education), vocational education (skill development), physical and emotional development, practical arts, applied science, sports, and recreation. Programme Framework of Saakshar Bharat The programme framework as provided in Saakshar Bharat document is as under: Objectives:The Mission has four broad objectives, namely, Impart functional literacy and numeracy to non-literate and non-numerate adults, Enable the neo-literate adults to continue their learning beyond basic literacy and acquire equivalency to formal educational system, Impart non and neo-literates relevant skill development programmes to improve their earning and living conditions, Promote a learning society by providing opportunities to neo-literate adults for continuing education. Targets and Special Focus Areas:The Government has set a National Goal of achieving by 2012, 80 percent literacy rate and reducing gender gap in literacy to 10 percent In addition, minimising regional, social and gender disparities with Special Focus on Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Minorities, disadvantaged groups, adolescents and low literacy States and tribal areas is the other national target. This target has to be achieved through formal schooling of 6-14 year old children and literacy programme of adults. In order to achieve 80% literacy, the principal target of the Mission is to impart functional literacy to 70 million adults in the age group of 15 years and beyond, to reduce gender disparity, 60 million of 70 million will be women. To reduce social disparities, within the overall target, 14 million will be Scheduled Castes (10 million women + 4 million men), 8 million Scheduled Tribes (6 million women + 2 million men) and 12 million minorities (10 million women + 2 million men). An auxiliary target of the Mission is to cover 1.5 million adults under basic education programme and equal number under vocational (skill development) programme. To minimise regional disparities, all districts that had adult female literacy rate of 50% or less as per 2001 Census are being covered under the programme. In addition, Left Wing Extremism Affected districts irrespective of their literacy rate are also eligible under the programme. As 84% of illiterate population lives in the rural areas, the prog ramme is being implemented only in the rural areas of the eligible districts. Whereas, in the urban areas, the demand for residual literacy will be met by innovatively using new actors like Jan Shikshan Sansthans, State Resource Centers, NGOs, social groups and any other institution through Public Private Partnership (PPP) or any other mode. Strategy: Saakshar Bharat will cover all adults in the age group of 15 and beyond though its primary focus will be on women. Basic Literacy, Post literacy and Continuing Education programmes, form a continuum, rather than sequential segments. For the volunteer based mass campaign approach, provision has been made for alternative approaches to adult education. Adult Education Centres (AECs), are to be set up to coordinate and manage all programmes, within their territorial jurisdiction. State Government and Panchyati Raj institutions along with communities would be valued stakeholders. Vigorous monitoring and evaluation systems are to be installed. Last, but not the least, budgetary support has been enhanced substantially. Teaching–Learning Programmes: To respond to the demand for literacy and address the diverse needs of the non and neo-literate adults, an assortment of teaching learning programmes, including Functional Literacy Programme, Basic Education Programme, Vocational Education and Continuing Education Programme are being offered as an integrated continuum. Functional Literacy Programme Programme Objectives:Literacy Programme (LP) aims at achieving the first objective of the scheme, that is, two Impart functional literacy to non-literate adults. Functional literacy, in context of the programme, implies achieving self-reliance in Reading, Writing, Arithmetic (Numeracy) and becoming aware of the causes of one’s deprivation and moving towards amelioration of their condition through organization and participation in the process of development; Acquiring skills to improve the economic status and general well being; Creating an aware and responsible citizenry (Imbibing values of national integration, communal harmony, conservation of the environment, women’s equality, and reproductive behavior etc. ). Literacy Programme Framework:The programme entails identification of non-literates through a survey, area wise mapping of their learning needs and imparting them instructor based teaching of about 300 hours spread over 3 months or beyond, depending on motivation of the learner and local conditions. Successful completion of the 300 hours of instructional learning would enable the learner to read and comprehend unknown text (news paper headings, road signs etc); apply skills of writing in day to day activities like writing applications and letters and filling up of application forms, etc., and compute simple problems involving multiplication and division. A certificate will be issued to every successful learner based on a professional evaluation of learning outcome. This will open up opportunities for further education through Open Learning Systems. Classes are convened at such time and venue as would be suitable to the learners. Volunteer-based Mass Campaign Approach: Under this appro ach, volunteer teaching takes place on a mass scale. A volunteer acts as a mobiliser, trainer and teacher and is responsible for imparting literacy, on an average, to 8-10 learners. The implementing agency at the operational level, will be responsible for identification of the potential learners as well as volunteers, their batching and matching, making arrangements for their training, distribution of literacy kits to learners and volunteers, keeping track of the progress made by each learner-volunteer group, ensuring that the momentum of learning is not lost, while simultaneously ensuring that learning takes place at the pace suitable to the learner. Incentives to the Volunteers and Learners Voluntary Literacy Educators are not paid any remuneration. Since highmotivational level of Voluntary Literacy Educators is critical, they need to be motivated through different means including public recognition, at different levels, of their contribution besides other incentives and rewards. Although budgetary provision has not been made for paying honorarium to Literacy Educators but, State Government, Gram Panchayat or NLMA through any other funding source, including do nations or public private partnership, may consider paying the same to them. Flexi Approach:Though Mass Campaign Approach continues to be the dominant strategy, the scheme discounts a homogenous approach uniformly throughout the country. To ensure that basic literacy is provided through a variety of context specific and group specific approaches. Implementing agencies may adopt any approach/model or a mix of approaches/models, including the illustrative formats outlined below: Centre-based Approach: a. Resident Instructor: In the eventuality of qualified Volunteers not being a resident within a particular village, instructors may be engaged from outside the village or community to live with the community and provide instructional teaching to the learners and assist them in completing basic literacy course. On an average, one Resident Instructor will be required to teach at least 30 learners in a period of one year. The Resident Instructor will be provided an honorarium as per NLMA norms. In this approach the centre will function for about 7-8 hours every day, and individual/groups of learners will attend classes for a couple of hours or more depending on the free time available to them. The instructors will be especially chosen for their sensitivity to issues of gender and caste equality, and their commitment to Constitutional values of democracy and secularism.b. Residential Camps: The residential camps are organized, specially for adolescents and young adults in the age group of 15-25 years, who might have already completed primary education (Standard IV/V) but later relapsed to illiteracy for want of follow up; and those who dropped out of the school system, and are now too old to rejoin school and those altogether excluded from systematic education. Identified young adults and adol escents are being motivated to participate in residential camps, which are organized at a suitable location in the Blocks. c. Part-residential Camp – Part-volunteer-based Approach: Provision has been made in the scheme to cover group-specific learners, such as non-literate members of self-help groups, women’s groups, or members of gram panchayats, or persons who may have joined together in a common cause. There are many such groups in the country today and many of them also function as a forum for credit and savings. It would provide for basic literacy in camps conducted for a suitable period, keeping in view the convenience of the beneficiaries, interspersed with guided learning in volunteer mode. These camps would enable learners to acquire literacy skills of pre-determined levels, simultaneously, providing opportunity for discussion and debate on issues relevant to their living and working conditions. Basic Education Programme Framework: This programme is designed to achieve the second objective of the scheme, namely, â€Å"Enable the neo-literates to continue their learning beyond basic literacy and acquire equivalency to formal educational system†. Arrangements have been made to enable young adults to continue their learning till they are able to achieve equivalence levels with Grade III, IV, V, VI, VII and VIII and beyond in the formal school system or through the Open Learning System. The Open Basic Education (OBE) programme initiated by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) and other State Open Schools have been taken as the starting point. INITIATIVES AND ACHIEVEMENTS (upto March, 2012) Although Saakshar Bharat Programme was launched on 8th September, 2009 but, the programme became operative from 1st October, 2009. The programme initially faced several challenges. It got revived after long hiatus and was as good as a new one. There was no formal implementation structure in the States. It heavily depended on spirit of Voluntarism. The programme envisaged for the first time involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions at Gram Panchayat, Block and District levels as the implementing agencies. Lot of preparations like environment building, formation of Management Committees at different levels, opening of Bank Accounts of each  implementing agency, authorisation of funds under the ICT based Fund Flow Mechanism, Training/Orientation of Resource Persons and functionaries and Representatives of Panchayati Raj Institutions, Preparation and Distribution of Teaching Learning Materials were required to be done to streamline the functioning of the programme. The following initiatives were taken during the last two and a half years of the functioning of the Saakshar Bharat Programme: Environment Building, M otivation and Mobilisation For environment building and mobilisation, an effective communication strategy was required for creating sustainable demand for literacy, making visible the importance and relevance of literacy and making literacy campaign participatory and voluntary. A strategic communication group was formed under the Chairpersonship of Dr. D. Purandeswari, Minister of State, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. The group approved a comprehensive communication strategy for mobilisation and environment building which entailed a multi media approach.